A
PANORAMIC VIEW OF JAINISM
Man
is endowed with the faculty of thinking. On gaining
self-consciousness,
he tries to understand the meaning of life and the nature of the universe
around
him. He gropes in various directions. Such speculation culminates in systematic
reasoning.
His quest produces some results. He forms certain concepts and adopts a course
of
action
for advancement. Man has been involved in these exercises since the beginning
of time,
Such
an endeavor of human intellect gives rise to philosophy - a theory of life and
the nature of
the
universe, and religion - a code of conduct for spiritual advancement.
1.2
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The
dawn of the "Historical Period" sometime between the tenth and
seventh centuries before
Christ,
is remarkable in the
history
of mankind. The period witnessed an upsurge of human spirit and endeavor.
Intense
waves
of activity of the human intellect swept many lands where man had emerged from
the
Bronze
Age. Zoroaster gave a new creed to Iran; Confucius and Laotse taught wisdom to
China;
Jews
in their Babylonian captivity developed unflinching faith in Jehovah; Greece
emerged as
the
pioneer of European culture, and her philosophers tackled the problems of life
and existence;
Rome
was founded.
At
this time, the situation in India was quite different. A highly complex
civilization and a noble
culture
had been
flourishing
in the country for centuries (1). There had been a continuous upheaval of mind
and
spirit,
and an all pervasive effervescence was weaving the fabric of Indian culture.
The centuries
old
dream of universal conquerors (chakravartis), both in political as well as in
religious fields,
was
in the process of being realized. It is evident from the philosophy of the
Upanishads that
human
intelligence and metaphysical concepts had sufficiently developed in India
before the
emergence
of the so-called dawn of the "Historical Period". The foundations had
been laid down
on
which the six systems of Indian philosophy were later built. The ideas
developed by the sages
of
the
Upanishads
led to expectations which were fulfilled in later periods. They provide us with
the
evidence
that different points of view had begun to emerge. The considerable
intellectual
activity going on in different directions was awaiting its full philosophical
maturity.
The
sixth century B.C. marked the beginnings of philosophical speculations in many
lands,
particularly
in Greece. However, in India, it was the age of considerable philosophical
progress.
Elsewhere
philosophy and religion pursued quite different and independent paths. Although
the
two
had, at times, crossed paths and one had influenced the other, philosophy and
religion never
merged
into one. In India on the other hand, it was and still is not possible to
differentiate
between
the two. Unlike the Greek, the Indian philosophy was not confined to the
academies. It
became
the religion of the masses. While the Indian sages and intellectual thinkers
found
solutions
for the problems of life and existence that were basically philosophical, their
teachings
created
and shaped components of a religious system. In course of time, these thinkers
became
prophets
and saints for their religious followers.
1.3
PARALLEL DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIAN CULTURE
There
have been two parallel developments of thought in the main stream of Indian
philosophy;
one
emphasizing the principle of self-discipline and nonviolence (ahimsa), and the
other, the
sacrificial
duties, for the salvation of human beings. There is evidence to suggest that
the
religious
and philosophical ideas were present in the consciousness of the people even
before the
arrival
of Aryan races in India.
In
the sixth century B.C., there was an upsurge of ideas leading to new
philosophical tenets and
religious
systems, often of a revolutionary character. The growth of the new religious
systems
and philosophical doctrines modified the outlook of the future. These systems
had very
little
in common with the Vedic rituals. Freedom of thoughts was their common feature.
The
Brahminical
scriptures have formulated four life stages
(ashrams);
The student, the householder, the hermit and the ascetic. In this scheme, the
last two
stages
developed a class of wandering ascetics, who freed themselves from the
obligations of
prevailing
religious ideas and practices, and thought out a new the fundamental problems
of life
and
existence. Their number increased and their constant movements brought them
into frequent
association
with one another. The result was a vigorous reorientation of the religious life
and a
twofold
reaction ensued.
First,
the thinking mind was in search of higher knowledge (para vidya) which was
indestructible
(aksharam).
The
philosophical
mind of the Upanishads turned to VEDANTA(2)
while
revolting against the sacrifices. This introduced a new element of of enlightenment
(Jnana
marg)
through meditation (Dhyan) instead of the traditional approach of sacrificial
work (karma
marg).
Meditation was assigned a higher value in the new scheme of philosophical
development.
As
a result, more intrepid thinkers arose, some who wanted to disregard the Vedas
completely
and
who openly rebelled against them. Jainism and Buddhism, among others, reflected
a
powerful
systematic and philosophical departure from the massive and elaborate Vedic
sacrifices
and
ceremonies.
Second,
there grew a monotheistic movement which denied the necessity, if not also the
reality,
of
the Vedic gods together with the preeminence of the Brahmins in spiritual
matters, and
accepted
devotion (bhakti marg) as the way of pleasing Gods such as Vishnu or Shiva.
The
intellectuals, while rejecting the Vedas as a source of knowledge and devotion,
emphasized
a
vigorous system of
discipline
based on a code of moral and spiritual behavior. They were also averse to the
inequities
of the caste system, particularly to the high pretensions of the Brahmins. They
were
termed
by the defenders of tradition and orthodoxy as
"heterodox"
thinkers. They believed that life was full of ills, and escape could be
effected only
through
meditation on devotion to the highest truth.
With
the rise of the heterodox movement, the mass of sacrifices and ceremonies which
were
inculcated
and supported by the
authority
of the Vedas began to fade away. A new and powerful religious current of the
quest of
the
Absolute originated. This idea progressively acquired a predominant character
of the Indian
culture
in future generations.
Dr.
K. M. Munshi has described its development in the following words:
Long
before the dawn of the "Historical Period" a central idea was already
becoming clear from
a
mass of incoherent urges which went under the generic name of dharma. Man was
not a
struggling
worm but a `self', of an essence with a supraphysical destiny which can only be
attained
by a mastery over the misery which was man's lot on earth; this mastery in its
turn can
only
be achieved by integrating personality by self-discipline so as to raise the
`self' above the
flux
of passing sense experience. The discipline implied a double process, the
relinquishment of
the
greed for life and the broadening of the personal self into a universal self.
The end of this
discipline
was variously named:
self-realization
(siddhi)
emancipation
(mukti, moksha)
freedom
(nirvana)
enlightenment
(jnana)
bliss
(ananda)
In
substance it was absolute integration of human personality (kaivalya) freed
from the
limitations
of attachment and
fear.
(3)
It
was this experience of different philosophical theories and interpretations
that Mahavir
inherited.
A stage was reached when the problems of life and mysteries of the universe
could be
unraveled
without presupposing the existence of God or the revelation of His will.
Vardhamana
Mahavir
and Gautama Buddha provided the strong base for this intellectual make up of
the
country.
Bhagwan Mahavir attempted to build a logical system of intellectual pursuit and
religious
organization based on
individual
experience, by individual effort and for individual salvation.
1.4
ANTIQUITY OF JAINISM
Jainism
contains the traces of the earliest developments of philosophical thinking in
the history
of
mankind. It has been generally recognized that Jain philosophy was sufficiently
advanced
before
the tenth century B.C. Earlier glimpses of Jainism have, however, been lost in
the
antiquity,
and the available sources of information do not provide hope of
recovering
them. According to the traditional Jain literature, there have been twenty-four
Tirthankaras
who reinstated the religious order at various times. The historical details of
the first
twenty-two
Tirthankars are not known, although traditional account of them found in Jain
literature
is not altogether insufficient to understand the line of Jain thought.
According to
traditional
information, Jainism was propagated by the
kshatriya
(of warrior class) princes. It repudiated, explicitly or implicitly, the
Brahminical claim
that
the Vedas were
infallible
sources of spiritual truth and the rituals prescribed therein, the means of
salvation.
The
lives and teachings of the last two Tirthankars, Bhagwan Parshvanath and
Bhagwan
Mahavir,
are historical facts. From their times onwards, we get an accurate outline of
the growth
of
Jain religion and philosophy. Historically, it is recognized that long before
the Christian Era,
Jain
metaphysical thought had crystallized into a definite school of philosophy. It
marked a
considerable
departure from the Vedic system and was, therefore, looked upon as a heterodox
system.
It was not merely a reform of the orthodox religion, but an altogether separate
religious
system.
1.
The Story of Civilization: Part I. Our Oriental Heritage by Will Durant, Simon
and Schuster,
New
York, 1935, pp.
394-396.
2.
The essence of the Vedas, which is the last portion of the Vedic literature.
3.
The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Age of Imperial Unity, Vol,
II. R. C.
Majumdar,
General Editor;
Bharatiya
Vidya Bhayan, Bombay, 1968.
MAHAVIR
- THE TWENTY-FOURTH TLRTHANKAR
2.1
LIFE SKETCH OF BHAGWAN MAHAVIR
Jain
tradition speaks of twenty-four Tirthankars (ford-makers across the stream of
existence),
each
of whom preached the doctrine to his own age. Of these, the first was Bhagwan
Rishabhadev
who preached the religion of nonviolence (ahimsa dharma) prior to the advent of
the
Aryans in India. The last of these was Bhagwan Mahavir, who lived from 599 B.C.
to 527
B.C.
He revealed the doctrine of nonviolence as preached by Bhagwan Rishabhadev.
Gosala
Makkhaliputta,
the head of the Ajivika sect, and Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism,
were
Mahavir's
contemporaries.
The
parents of Mahavir belonged to the lay following of Bhagwan Parshvanath, the
twenty-third
Tirthankar,
who was the son of King Ashvasen and Queen Vama of Varanasi. Parshvanath lived
as
a householder for thirty years, then became an ascetic, and after performing
penance for
eighty-four
days, attained
enlightenment
(omniscience). He lived for a full hundred years and attained nirvana on Mount
Sammedashikhar,
some 250 years before Mahavir.
Mahavir
was born on the thirteenth day of the bright fortnight of Chaitra, the first
month of the
Indian
calendar,
corresponding
to March 30, 599 B.C., in a suburb of Vaishali called Kundgram, now known as
Basukund.
His parents were
Siddhartha,
a wealthy nobleman, and Trishala, a sister of
Chetak,
an eminent Lichchhavi prince of Vaishali. Mahavir's original name was
Vardhamana.
His
more popular name Mahavir was bestowed on him later. He is frequently referred
to as "the
venerable
ascetic Mahavir".
Mahavir
became a monk at the age of thirty. He practiced severe asceticism
(tapaschariya)
throughout
his life, abandoning his clothing and wandering as a sky-clad (Digambar) monk.
His
ways
of meditation, days of austerities, and mode of behavior
furnish
a beautiful example for monks in religious life. His spiritual pursuit lasted
for twelve
years.
During the period of penance, Mahavir met several monks to enrich his spiritual
experience.
In
557 B.C., after twelve years of austerities and meditation, on the tenth day of
the bright half of
Vaishakha,
the second month of the Indian calendar, Mahavir attained omniscience (absolute
knowledge).
Henceforth, he began his career as a path-maker and a religious teacher.
For
the next thirty years, Mahavir, the wandering ascetic, preached the doctrine of
eternal truth.
He
wandered for
eight
months of the year and spent four months of the rainy season (Chaturmas) in
some large
town
such as Champa, Vaishali, Rajagriha, Mithila and Shravasti. He attracted people
from all
walks
of life, rich and poor, kings and commoners, men and women, princes and
priests,
touchables
and untouchables. Many famous contemporary kings and nobles thronged to listen
to
his
spiritual discourses and became his disciples.
On
the fifteenth day of the dark half of Kartik, the eighth month of the Indian
calendar, in 527
B.C.,
at the age of
seventy-two,
Tirthankar Mahavir attained Nirvana at a place called Majjhima Pava, the
present
Pavapuri
in the Patna district of the Indian state of Bihar. On the night of his
salvation, the kings
and
heads of the two clans, the Mallas and the
Lichchhavis,
assembled and celebrated the Festival of Lights (Deepavali) in his honor.
2.2
SOME SIGNIFICANT POINTS
From
what has been stated above, certain significant points emerge about the life
and teachings
of
Bhagwan Mahavir.
(1)
Jainism existed before Mahavir and his teachings were based on those of his
predecessors.
Thus,
unlike Buddha, Mahavir was more of a reformer and propagator of an existing
religious
order
than the founder of a new faith. He followed the wellestablished
creed
of his predecessor Tirthankar Parshvanath. However, Mahavir did reorganize
the
philosophical tenets of Jainism to correspond to his times.
(2)
Mahavir was a brilliant personality. He occupies a unique place among the
greatest men of
the
world, He was an oasis in the arid desert of confusion about the ultimate goal
of human life.
He
was a philosopher as well as a Tirthankar. As a philosopher, he made his
enquiries in order
to
solve the problem of life. As a Tirthankar, he gave a new revelation to the
Dharma preached
by
his predecessors. Mahavir adopted two steps to unravel reality:
One,
he reconciled his realization of the inner
world
with the realm of reason.
Two,
he made enquiries into the nature of life and of
existence
through his own personal observations, knowledge and experience.
(3)
Mahavir was undoubtedly a product of the best of Aryan culture. Besides the
inherited
philosophy
of his predecessors, he was also inspired by other Indian schools of thought.
The
contemporary
ideals of freedom from worldly misery and the thought of transmigration
profoundly
affected his thinking. This led him to the goal of integrated personality
through the
conquest
of human weaknesses. The kindred forces which were united against the
Brahminical
religious
traditions, gave birth to the theory of renunciation and self-realization
(Nivritti Marg).
Mahavir
was at the forefront of this ferment at the intellectual, spiritual and social
levels.
Further,
he
visualized
relativism (Syadvada) which means that isolated and opposite objects are bound
in
one
harmonious stream. Thus, scrupulous exhaustiveness became the main
characteristic of his
approach.
The
spiritual power and moral grandeur of Mahavir's teachings impressed the masses.
He made
religion
simple and natural, free from elaborate ritual complexities. His teachings
reflected the
popular
impulse towards internal beauty and harmony. Mahavir made Jainism the focal
point for
the
students of other schools of thoughts as well.
(4)
Mahavir emphasized the need of a comprehensive outlook - the multiplicity of
viewpoints
(Anekantavada).
For him,
there
was no question of exaltation or domination of anyone's spiritual or
ideological
contribution.
In his view, a
dissenting
opinion was a natural human tendency. The wisdom, however, lies in harmonizing
the
dissensions.
(5)
Mahavir was quite successful in eradicating from human intellect the conception
of God as
creator
or protector. He also denounced the worship of God (and of gods and goddesses)
as a
means
of salvation. He taught the idea of supremacy of human life and stressed the
importance
of
the positive. His message of nonviolence (ahimsa), truth (satya), non-stealing
(achaurya),
celibacy
(brahmacharya) and non-possessiveness (aparigraha) is full of universal
compassion.
He
said that a living body is not merely an integration of limbs but it is the
abode of soul which
potentially
has infinite perception (anant darshan), infinite knowledge (anant jnana),
infinite
power
(anant virya) and infinite bliss (anant sukha). Mahavir's message reflects
freedom and
spiritual
joy of soul.
(6)
In matters of spiritual enfranchisement, as envisioned by Mahavir, both men and
women
were
on an equal footing. The lure of renunciation and liberation attracted women as
well.
Many
women followed Mahavir's path and renounced the world in search of spiritual
advancement.
(7)
Like Buddhism, Jainism also received royal patronage. The king of Magadh,
Shrenik, and
Mahavir's
maternal uncle, Chetak, among others, were devoted to Mahavir. However, the
acceptance
ofMahavir's teachings by the masses was the most important factor.
In
short, Mahavir contributed to the process of unifying India and developing its
collective
conscience
by integrating Aryan and pre-Aryan elements into a composite culture and
spirituality.
In
a few centuries after Mahavir's nirvana, Jain religious order (Sangha) grew
more and more
complex.
There were schisms on some minor points although they did not affect the
original
doctrines
as preached by the Tirthankar. Later generations saw the introduction of
ritualistic
complexities
which almost placed Mahavir and other Tirthankars on the throne of deities.
Mahavir's
indifference to the worship of God was overshadowed by the role normally
assigned
to
God in other religions.
JAIN
PHILOSOPHY
During
the period of his spiritual pursuit, Bhagwan Mahavir developed sympathy for
suffering,
the
idea of sanctity of all life, liberality and compassion towards all, and
toleration of all
religious
views. He organized his spiritual order based on his own inner experiences. His
philosophical
ideas have a refreshingly attractive message appealing to the common sense of
man.
Some tenets of his philosophy are outlined below.
3.1
MULTIPLICITY OF viewpoints (ANEKANTAVADA) AND
RELATIVISM
(SYADAVADA)
The
spring point of the doctrine of multiplicity of viewpoints is that human
knowledge cannot be
painted
in terms of religious colors. Knowledge knows no limitations and boundaries.
Religion
and philosophy are not limited to a particular country, period, or group.
Different
points
of view are mere additions to the human knowledge. When viewed together, they
present
the
picture of universal reality. Moreover, the knowledge of
reality
cannot be obtained through the senses. Whatever we perceive through the senses
is
merely
the appearance, it is not the world of reality. If we want to reach reality, we
must
withdraw
from the world of senses into that of inner experience. It is through the
combination of
proper
perception (samyak darshan), proper knowledge (samyak jnana) and proper conduct
(samyak
charitra) that we can attain self-realization and
understand
the nature of reality.
The
fundamental philosophical base of Jainism is therefore the comprehensive view
of reality.
Jain
philosophy points out that the ultimate reality is complex in character and in
order to
comprehend
its nature, we must examine it from various points of view. Attending to a
particular
aspect of reality to the
exclusion
of other aspects may serve some specific purpose under certain circumstances,
but it is
only
a partial vision of
reality.
Over emphasis on a particular aspect of reality not only distorts reality, but
it also leads
to
dogmatic slavery, mutual misunderstanding and conflict of interests. To
recognize the nature
of
reality in all its completeness, one has to review a variety of aspects before
arriving at any
conclusion.
The
logical crux of the aforesaid process is that there is always the possibility
of many
standpoints
in relation to the same object, The same object can have primarily two
contradictory
propositions, and, therefore, can be described from one standpoint that it
exists
(asti)
and from another standpoint that it does not (nasti).
Every
proposition is both "is" and "is not" at the same time, and
it is certainly impossible to
speak
of the same from a single point of view. Two propositions, one affirmative
(asti) and the
other
negative are always asserted with reference to four aspects of a thing:
Substance
(dravya)
place
(kshetra)
time
(kaal)
form
(bhava)
A
thing is or exists in respect of its own substance, but it does not exist in
respect of other
substances.
Take the case of a piece of furniture. It may be made of ordinary jungle wood
and it
may
be so painted as to appear as rosewood. Now, the furniture is (exists as)
jungle wood, but is
not
(does not exist as) rosewood.
Similarly,
a thing exists in its own place and it does not, at the same time, exist in any
other
place.
While the cow is in her shed, she is not in the field.
Again,
a thing is in its own time and is not in another time. Raja Rammohan Roy
existed before
Gandhiji,
but did not exist after Gandhiji.
Likewise,
a thing, while existing in its own form does not exist in another form. Water
below
freezing
point exists as a solid, but does not exist then as a liquid.
These
four aspects form the asti-nasti-vada. This represents a pragmatic view in
which an object
may
be affirmatively described from one point of view of its own substance, place,
time and
form,
and negatively described from the standpoint of the
substance,
place, time and form of another thing. It is,
therefore,
clear that both the propositions, the affirmative and the negative, are true
with
reference
to the same object of reality.
In
short, asti-nasti-vada implies the prediction of
contradictory
attributes of asti ("is") and nasti ("is not") to the same
reality. It is interesting to
compare
this with
Hegel's
dialectic principle which says that an idea or event (thesis) generates its
opposite
(antithesis)
which leads to a reconciliation of opposites (synthesis).
Jain
thinkers have further developed the logic into the theory of seven aspects
(saptabhangi)
which
postulates that as many as seven modes of prediction are possible in any given
case.
Therefore,
no definite or absolute statements can be made about any question. To the
question
"Is
there soul?" the Jain logic would admit of seven answers. These are:
(1)
is
(2)
is not
(3)
is and is not
(4)
is inexpressible
(5)
is and is inexpressible
(6)
is not and is inexpressible
(7)
is, is not and is inexpressible
There
is an aspect in which there is soul, there is also an aspect in which it is not
possible to
describe
soul, and so on. This is equivalent to saying that knowledge is only
probabilistic.
The theory is also called relativism (syadavada, the doctrine of "may
be").
The
doctrines of multiplicity of viewpoints and relativism, as postulated by Jains,
have a unique
importance
today. The
present-day
world is too circumscribed and interdependent as never before in the history of
mankind.
In order to achieve the objectives world peace, harmonious individuality and
integrated
personality of the individual, the contributions of different sages, faiths,
philosophers
and
thinkers of different nations and periods must not only be fully recognized,
but should also
be
given their proper place. This will bring out a common outlook based on justice
and equality.
The
great philosopher statesman, late Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, has rightly observed
that:
"Increasing
control over the forces of nature has brought men of different regions nearer
one
another.
Different cultures have, thus, been brought into close proximity. Closer
brought into
one
common pool of human knowledge. They also facilitate the task of philosophy in
affecting a
reconciliation
between the different principles underlying the outlook of different
civilizations.
The evolution of a world philosophy has become today a matter not only of
theoretical
interest, but of great practical urgency."(4)
Obviously,
the dogmatism emphasizing only the point of view of one religion, philosophy,
nation,
period or class of people will not satisfy modern, intelligent men.
Multiplicity of
viewpoints
(anekantavada) is an approach to solve the problems of life from a truly
integrated
point
of view. It provides a synoptic view to bring together in one compass the
knowledge
attained
by different peoples at different times. Relativism (syadavada) is the first
step towards
human
happiness, peaceful prosperity, world civility, coexistence and cooperative
universality in
this
war-torn, fearful and tense situation of the world today.
3.2
THE CONCEPT OF ENTITY (DRAVYA)
Viewed
in terms of the comprehensive character of reality, every object in nature has
three
aspects:
Origination
(utpada)
destruction
(vyaya)
permanence
(dhrauvya)
A
faithful and natural description of reality takes into
consideration
the three aspects:
Permanence
in the midst of change
identity
in the midst of diversity
unity
in the midst of multiplicity
For
example, a plant begins its life, grows and then dies. However, the plant
maintains its
identity
throughout its process of growth.
The
complex nature of reality as a permanence in the midst of origination and
destruction, has
been
described by Jain thinkers by the concept of entity (dravya). An entity is
defined to have
existence
(sat), which in turn implies origination, destruction and permanence. An entity
possesses
its own characteristic qualities or attributes (gunas) and it assumes a variety
of modes,
modifications
or forms (paryayas). Attributes and modes are inseparable from an entity.
In
other words, an entity apart from its attributes and
attributes
apart from their entity are mere abstractions.
The
modifications that an entity undergoes refer to the various shapes and forms
into which a
substance
is transformed either naturally or artificially. A living being, through the
process of
growth,
undergoes various changes such as childhood, youth and old age. These changes
are the
natural
modifications of the living being. Modifications can also be affected
artificially. For
example,
clay is molded by the potter into various shapes, and gold is made by a
goldsmith into
various
ornaments. While undergoing various modifications, either natural or
artificial, the basic
substance
remains the same. The intrinsic attributes remain unchanged and are permanent,
while
the
forms change and are transient.
An
entity (substance) is permanent (nitya) considering its attributes, and it is
transient (anitya)
from
the standpoint of its forms (modifications). The point of view of the
attributes is known as
substantial
standpoint (dravyarthik naya) and the point of view of the modes (forms) is
called
modal
standpoint (paryayarthik naya).
3.3
STRUCTURAL VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
The
world of reality consists of two classes of objects:
Conscious
(chetan) objects and non-conscious (achetan) objects. These are otherwise
called the
living
(jivas) and nonliving (ajivas).
(a)
Nonliving:
The
nonliving or non-conscious is the universe minus the living or conscious. It is
not exactly
equivalent
to matter, for, besides matter, it includes such entities as space and time.
There are
five
nonliving entities. The most important of these is matter (including energy)
which, in
Jainism,
is called
pudgala.
Material objects are constituted of atoms (paramanus). The atoms of different
elements
make
up physical objects which are called aggregates (skandhas in Jainism). The
whole physical
world
is itself a super aggregate (mahaskanddha). Material objects can be perceived
by the
senses
(indriyas) and have the sensory qualities (touch, taste, smell and color) as
their attributes.
The
second nonliving entity is space (akash). It accommodates other entities of the
universe.
The
portion of space that contains other substances is called physical space
(Lokakash), and
beyond
it there is empty space (alokakash) which is just a void.
The
third and fourth nonliving entities are medium of motion (dharma) and medium of
rest
(adharma)(5).
These two pervade the whole of lokakash. The medium of motion supports the
motion
of the living and nonliving objects while the medium of rest keeps them steady
and in
equilibrium.
Time
(kaal) is the fifth entity of the universe. It is made up of atomic moments.
Time is real and
it
cannot be dismissed as illusory. Time maintains the reality of change and
motion in physical
realm,
and growth and development in the living world.
The
space, medium of motion, medium of rest, time and the souls (described below)
do not
possess
sensory qualities. Thus they cannot be perceived by senses. They can only be
postulated.
They make the physical world what it is.
(b)
Conscious or Living Beings:
A
living being is a conscious entity. It is the most important aspect of reality.
The conscious
being
(jiva) is also called soul. It knows and feels. It acts and is acted upon. It
suffers by its
association
with matter and is born again and again, only to suffer. There is a plurality
of souls
in
the universe. Each soul is subject to the same laws of karma and rebirth. The
highest
endeavor
of the soul is to free itself from this bondage of karma and attain salvation.
Souls
are divided into two major groups: Liberated (mukta) souls and worldly
(samsari) souls.
Worldly
souls are in the bondage of karma and are subject to birth, growth, old age and
death
which
are characteristic of this world.
The
classification of the living beings (worldly souls) is based on the number of
sense organs
(indriyas)
present in the living beings. The lowest of these are the one-sensed
(ekendriya) living
beings
which are immobile (sthavar). They are endowed with only one sense, that of
touch
(sparsh).
Plants and trees belong to this class of living beings. There are also other
microscopic
single-sensed
organisms (sukshma ekendriya jivas) which are subtle and invisible to the naked
eye.
These
microscopic
organisms are found in earth, water, air, etc.
The
next higher living beings are mobile (trasa). These are:
two-sensed
(dwindriya) having the senses of touch and taste
three-sensed
(trindriya) having the senses of touch, taste and smell
four-sensed
(chaturindriya) possessing the senses of touch, taste, smell and sight
five-sensed
(panchendriya), having the senses of touch,
taste,
smell, sight and hearing
All
higher animais belong to the class of five-sensed beings. Almost all
five-sensed living beings
are
endowed with a mind (manas), the faculty of thinking. Man is a five-sensed
living being
with
a mind. Besides human beings, according to Jainism, there are heavenly beings
(devas) and
beings
living in hell (narak).
The
five nonliving entities together with the living beings are aspects of reality
in Jainism.
3.4
KARMA THEORY
Bhagwan
Mahavir visualized that the world is full of misery and sorrows, and,
therefore, he
concluded
that the fundamental object of religion should be to help the worldly souls
cross the
river
of sorrows and obtain deliverance from the cycles of births and deaths. The
root cause of
the
soul's worldly career is its own actions which associate it with different
types of external
material
particles (karma). There are the following eight types of karma:
1.
The perception-obscuring (darshanavarni) karma
2. The
knowledge-obscuring (jnanavarni) karma
3.
The feeling-producing (vedaniya) karma
4.
The deluding (mohaniya) karma
5.
The life-span-determining (aayu) karma
6.
The physique-determining (naam) karma
7.
The status-determining (gorta) karma
8.
The obstructing (antaraya) karma
All
living beings, whether human or sub-human, are subject to the influence of
these eight types
of
karma.
According
to another classification, karma are of two kinds:
physical
(dravya) karma which are material particles and
abstract
(bhava) karma which are impure mental dispositions.
The
physical karmic particles constitute the karmic body
associated
with the soul. Around this subtle body, the gross material body is built
through
nutrition
from the environment.
It
is the abstract karma (the feelings and emotions) which is responsible for
attracting material
karmic
particles to the soul. The physical karma in its turn influences the
psychological
disposition. Thus a psycho-physical cycle is maintained between the physical
karma
and abstract karma.
One
causes changes in the other although there is no direct interaction between the
two. Material
changes
must be
attributed
to material antecedent, and similarly, psychological changes must be attributed
to
antecedent
psychological
conditions.
The attempt to get rid of the association with matter (karma) entails avoiding
impure
psychological
disposition in its own consciousness. A course of regulating the combined
activity
of
body, speech and mind (yoga) and penance (tapa) has been prescribed for the
purpose.
Emancipation
from this mundane existence can be effected only by the individual self.
Salvation
can
be achieved through proper conduct and austerities rather than sacrifices,
rituals and prayers
to
God. Although complete renunciation of the world and severe austerities which
can be
practiced
only by a homeless monk, are necessary for elimination of the cycle of birth
and death,
the
life of a layman (grishastha) is also regarded as an important preparatory
stage in the process
of
deliverance. Thus varying degrees of moral and spiritual code of conduct have
been
prescribed
for laymen (shravakas) and for monks (sadhus) as part of the disciplinary
regulations.
Asceticism
and abstentions are essential for attaining freedom from the bondage of karma.
3.5
THEORY OF HUMAN EXCELLENCE
By
practicing yoga and penance (tapa), every soul can climb, step by step, to
different stages of
perfection,
becoming purer and purer at every stage until it reaches spiritual glory from
which
there
is no return. Through the process of yoga and penance, the soul can get rid of
the worldly
environment
and ultimately attain its pristine state. The spiritual salvation thus achieved
shines
forth
with all its glory just like the sun when the obstructive clouds disperse and
disappear.
The
stage of spiritual perfection is, no doubt, isolated, but is associated with
the infinite
foursome
(Anant Chatushtaya), namely, infinite perception, infinite knowledge, infinite
power
and
infinite bliss, which are the intrinsic characteristics of the perfect soul.
Each individual is the
architect
of his own spiritual destiny. Man's emancipation from suffering does not depend
upon
the
mercy of any superhuman authority. By living an austere life of purity and
virtue, one can
escape
the ills of worldly life and can ultimately achieve salvation.
It
is clear from what has been stated above that man is placed on the highest
pedestal among the
souls
in bondage because it is only man who is capable of attaining the ultimate
spiritual goal.
He
is the only being in this world who is proximate to salvation. There is no
Supreme being to
liberate
the worldly beings. Even the heavenly beings cannot directly attain
liberation.
They must be reborn as humans before they can hope to achieve salvation. This
is
because
only man can perform yoga and penance necessary for breaking up all the
shackles of
bondage.
Every soul possesses the potential of becoming
emancipated
and there is a whole galaxy of deified men who have attained greatness by their
complete
spiritual purification.
3.6
THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Jain
thinkers have described the following five kinds of
knowledge:
Sensory
cognition (mati jnana)
Literal
knowledge (shrut jnana)
Clairvoyance
(avadhi jnana)
Telepathy
(manahparyaya jnana)
Omniscience
(keval jnana) or absolute knowledge
As
distinguished from other systems which consider sense
perception
as direct knowledge, Jains define direct knowledge as the perception by the
soul
without
any intermediary.
Accordingly,
the first two kinds of knowledge are considered as indirect (paroksha) by Jain
thinkers
since they are acquired through sense organs or books. The last three kinds of
knowledge
are immediate (pratyaksha) or direct knowledge.
Clairvoyance
enables a person to have visions of objects and events in distant places or in
distant
times.
This capacity may be acquired through psychological development.
Telepathy
is the ability to know the ideas and thoughts of others. It is the insight to
the
psychological
events taking place in others' minds. It is said to be acquired through rigorous
discipline
and concentration.
The
absolute knowledge or omniscience is attained by complete self-realization and
by getting
rid
of perception-obscuring, knowledge-obscuring, deluding and obstructing karmas.
Omniscience
is coextensive with reality. There is no difference of time such as past,
present and
future
in the case of
omniscience
since it is able to comprehend reality in its
completeness.
According
to Jain thinkers, the object of knowledge is not a creation of mind, rather the
knowledge
and the object of
knowledge
are distinct from each other. Jains maintain the view that the physical object
in the
external
world is independent of knowledge and cannot be created or changed by the
knowing
mind.
The object of knowledge may also be psychological facts.(6)
3.7
JAIN ETHICS - PATH TO SALVATION (MOKSHA MARG)
The
keynote of Jainism rings with
religious
tolerance
ethical
purity
spiritual
contentment
harmony
between self and one's environment
Its
central theme is not based on a theoretical science.
Rather,
it considers religion as a science of ethical practice. It conceives the human
body not as a
toy-machine
to play with, but as a chariot on which the soul rides towards salvation. In
the
scheme
of Jain system, life on earth is not merely
sorrowful.
It is on probation to conduct itself to successively higher and higher forms of
existence.
The conduct of the
present
life should be aimed at the attainment of a permanent state of being from which
there is
no
return. Every soul can attain godhood, i.e., supreme spiritual individuality by
realizing
its intrinsic purity and perfection.
In
his conduct, an individual can be guided by the examples of five benevolent
personalities
(panch
parameshthi). These are:
Supreme
human beings (arahantas)
pure
souls (siddhas)
master
teachers (acharyas)
scholarly
monks (upadhyayas)
ascetics
(sadhus)
Aranantas
are persons who have destroyed four types of karmas, mentioned above, and have
attained
omniscience.
Siddhas
are souls that are completely free from karmic bondage and have attained
salvation.
The
first step in the process of self-realization is to discard superstitious
beliefs and to adopt a
rational
and judicious attitude in life. Jainism lays down a definitive course of
practical moral
discipline,
contemplation of the highest truth and reorientation of life in light of these
for
attaining
ultimate
reality.
In
common with other Indian systems, it prescribes a path to salvation (moksha
marg), which
consists
of the three jewels (ratnatraya) of Jainism:
proper
perception (samyak darshan)
proper
knowledge (samyak jnana)
proper
conduct (samyak charitya)
The
three jewels are, obviously, necessary for a successful life. This threefold
discipline helps us
realize
our own
intrinsic
purity. The three jewels must be cultivated
collectively
to ensure salvation. Individually, they are
incomplete
and insufficient because they are mutually dependent. In isolation, perception
or
knowledge
or conduct causes
conflicts
or tensions and vitiates the environment.
Collectively.
the three jewels produce harmony, contentment and blissfulness with the
progressive
march of the soul to the higher planes.
Proper
perception creates awareness of reality, proper knowledge impels the person to
action and
proper
conduct leads him to the attainment of the desired objective.
Proper
conducts entails the following five vows:
Nonviolence
(ahimsa)
Truth
(satya)
Non-stealing
(achaurya)
Abstention
from sensuality (brahmacharya)
Nonpossessiveness
(aparigraha)
Ahimsa
is based on love and kindness for all living beings. It has been repeatedly
pointed out in
Jain
scriptures that even the thought of evil is as bad as action resulting in
injury.
Nonviolence
of Jainism is not a negative virtue. It is based upon the positive quality of
universal
love
which is the result of a recognition of kinship among all living beings. One
who is actuated
by
this ideal cannot be indifferent to the suffering of others.
Satya
implies being not only truthful but also pleasant and wholesome.
Achaurya
consists in not taking others' property without his consent, or by unjust or
immoral
methods.
Brahmacharya
means abstaining from sexual indulgence.
Aparigraha
means nonpossessiveness of property and giving up greed.
The
five vows are observed with voluntary limitations by the householders
(anuvratis) and
absolutely
by the homeless ascetics (mahavratis).
Jain
ethical code does not prescribe duties according to caste or other social
inequalities. All
men
and women are equal in birth and everyone is entitled to be either a
householder or an
ascetic
according to his or her choice. The observance of the ethical code by an
individual does
not
only develop his
spirituality,
but also helps in contributing to social justice, economic equality,
humanization of
culture
and civilization, human happiness, class harmony as against class conflict, and
growth of
an
egalitarian society.
Jain
religion lays special emphasis on nonviolence and truth. In fact, these two are
the principal
religious
ideas. The spiritual value of Jain code of conduct has been upheld
throughout
Jain literature. Victory over suffering, calm
attitude
towards cruelty and persecution, patience towards opponents are some of the
main
characteristics
of Jain ascetics, The Jain code of conduct presupposes an extraordinary courage
and
peace of mind which originates only from spiritual integrity and strength.
"It
is this strength of the spiritual power of the self that was recognized by
Gandhiji in his
political
struggle against odds. Both in South Africa and in India he successfully made
use of this
spiritual
weapon against the political opponents who were equipped with ordinary weapons
of
destruction
and suppression. Thus Gandhiji raised ahimsa and satya to universal importance.
His
socio-political
experiments proved beyond doubt the value of this spiritual power. Equipped
with
this weapon of ahimsa and satyagraha (7) one can overcome any amount of opposition
depending
upon brutal force. While he was alive Gandhi dreamed of offering this spiritual
weapon
to the world at large--a world disturbed by mutual suspicion, always ready for
warfare.
He
thought that this spiritual ideal would be able to serve as a cure for the
various ills that
afflicted
the world at large. Let us hope that this spirit will ultimately prevail and
convert the
world
of warring classes and nations into a world of peace and harmony where all can
live in
happiness,
without destruction of race, religion and nationality," (8)
---------------------------------------------------------------
4.
History of Philosophy: Eastern and Western, Vol. I; pp 26-27; Edited by S.
Radhakrishnan,
George
Allen & Unwin Ltd.,
London,
1952.
5.
In this context, the Sanskrit words, dharma and adharma do not have their usual
meanings.
6.
The knowledge related to psychological facts is practically the relation
between the thought
process
and physical events which are identical in nature with the process of knowing.
Even here
the
facts in consciousness revealed by knowledge are considered independent of the
process of
knowing,
otherwise
the knowledge so obtained will become illusory and unreal. Knowledge is
self-luminous
inasmuch as it reveals itself just as it illuminates the external objects.
7.
Satyagraha means peaceful non-cooperation.
8.
A. Chakravarti, Jain Philosophy; History of Philosophy, op. cit. p. 151.
CERTAIN
SPECIAL FEATURES OF JAINISM
4.1
THE ONTOLOGICAL VIEW
The
ontological view of Jains is concerned primarily with the life and existence
rather than the
creation
of the universe and the conception of God. Jainism, however, cannot be regarded
as
agnosticism
or metaphysical nihilism. It is to the credit of Jain thinkers that they
constructed a
philosophy
and theory of reality out of the negative approach of those who were
protesting
against the dogmatism of the Vedas.
Jainism
does not deny reality. Jain philosophers adopted a middle course by propounding
a
theory
that the world consisted of two eternal, uncreated, coexisting but independent
categories
of
substances: The conscious (jiva) and the unconscious
(ajiva).
They developed the logic that the world is not
altogether
unknowable; only one should not be absolutely certain about one's assertions.
Jain
philosophers
said that moral and religious values must be brought out of dogmatic slavery.
Wisdom
must be proved by reason which, in turn, depends on the experiences of self and
of
others.
The human experience based on reason constitutes the data for the discovery of
reality.
4.2
CONCEPT OF GODHOOD
Professor
Surendranath Dasgupta, the famous philosopherhistorian,
has
described the concept of Godhood as follows:
"The
true God is not the God as the architect of the universe, nor the God who tides
over our
economic
difficulties or panders to our vanity by fulfilling our wishes, but it is the
God who
emerges
within and through our value-sense, pulling us up and through the emergent
ideals and
with
whom I may feel myself to be united in the deepest bonds of love. The dominance
of value
in
all its forms presupposes love, for it is the love for the ideal that leads us
to forget our
biological
encumbrances. Love is to be distinguished from passion by the fact that while
the
latter
is initiated biologically, the former is initiated from a devotedness to the
ideal. When a
consummating
love of this description is generated, man is raised to Godhood and God to
man."
(9)
This
corresponds to the Jain approach to Godhood. In Jainism, God is the supreme
manifestation
of
human excellence.
4.3
PESSIMISM vs. OPTIMISM
Jainism
is often considered to have a prevailing note of
pessimism
about life. This is not true. The tone of
hopefulness
pervades all aspects of Jain philosophy. "We hear much indeed of
philosophy",
observes
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, "as a call to transcend the narrowness of egoism and
identify
ourselves
with something greater than ourselves as the way of salvation, but this is not
in order to
escape
from the
ineradicable
evil of existence but in order to find ourselves in things that give to
existence its
only
true value." For "in the man who transcends his narrow self and
merges it in the life of the
whole
philosophy as truth, religion as devotion and morality as goodness meet."
This is similar
to
the Jain view of life described earlier.
4.4
THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN PEACE
We
are all pilgrims of peace. So far, we have not succeeded in our quest. No doubt
we have
discovered
science and science has given us new powers but it has not brought peace. The
time
has
now come when philosophy and religion should turn their
attention
to the problem of peace on earth. Jainism, owing to its comprehensive and
accommodative
nature, is well-equipped to solve the problem of world peace. Jainism preaches
multiplicity
of viewpoints (anekantavada) which weans us from too
exclusive
occupations and dogmatic suppositions. The gigantic experiments going on
throughout
the world need a fuller
understanding
of the minds of the leaders of thought,
irrespective
of their, social outlook, political beliefs,
religious
creed or nationality. With the complexity and vastness of the subject matter,
the
attainment
of unanimity remains only an ideal. Great thinkers have made varied attempts to
reach
this ideal. It is essential that people should look at things from as many
viewpoints as
possible
and reach an acceptable solution to problems.
4.5
TRUTH AND NONVIOLENCE
Jain
ethical code is based on two main concepts: Nonviolence (ahimsa) and truth
(satya). These
are
important not only for individual uplift but also for social welfare and
prosperity. All the
twenty-four
Tirthankars preached nonviolence and truth for spiritual advancement as against
sacrificial
rituals. Nonviolence is based on sanctity of life and love for all living
beings. Truth
purifies
the mind. Speaking pleasant and wholesome truth is nobler than silence.
In
modern times, Mahatma Gandhi has demonstrated the value of these ideals.
"I am being led
to
my religion", he says "through truth and nonviolence, i.e., love in
the broadest sense.... Denial
of
God we have known. Denial of truth we have not known. The most ignorant among
mankind
have
some truth in them. We are all sparks of truth. The sum total of these sparks
is
indescribable,
as-yet-unknown-truth which is God. I am being daily led nearer to it by
constant
prayer."
...He further says, "To be sure to such religion, one has to lose oneself
in continuous
and
continuing service of all life. Realization of truth is impossible without a
complete merging
of
oneself in, and in identification with, this limitless ocean of life.
Hence,
for me, there is no escape from social service, there is no happiness on earth
beyond or
apart
from it. Social service here must be taken to include every department of life.
In this
scheme,
there is nothing low, nothing high, all is one, though we seem to be
many." (10)
4.6
JAlNISM AS APPLIED INTELLIGENCE
Jainism
is neither the satisfaction of intellectual curiosity (nishchaya) nor the
practical
pragmatism
(vyavhara) alone. It is a combination of both. Both are essential for an
integrated
growth
of man. Intellect is significant as a means to better practical moral
adjustment.
However,
truth cannot be attained by reason alone without practical moral discipline of
the
passions
and prejudices which warp human judgement. In short, Jainism is applied
intelligence
rather
than pure science. It is a training in modesty rather than twisting the facts
for a supposed
explanation.
Jainism influences life with deepest insight, widest farsight, synthetic
disinterestedness
(vitaraga) and penetrating comprehensiveness in man's journey towards
salvation--the
state of soul having infinite perception,
infinite
knowledge, infinite bliss and infinite strength.
By
developing insight, man acquires the quality of
distinguishing
between the real and the unreal, and of grasping of the ultimate nature of
things.
By
developing farsight, man acquires the quality of distinguishing the eternal
values from
transitory
ones and lives his own life for accomplishing the eternal values. The quality
of
disinterestedness
relieves a person from one-sided dependence. A comprehensive view helps
man
penetrate beneath the superficial and limited sphere, and leads him to the
nature of reality.
It
is primarily because of these features that Jainism has maintained its identity
and has remained
less
hostile and more accommodative to fellow religious communities than some other
heterodox
systems.
